"Works councils have been an important vehicle of collective representation in most Western European countries. They have facilitated trade union involvement in employment relations at enterprise level, even when membership levels are relatively low. However, there have been recent doubts about the resilience of the institution, particularly given its lower coverage in expanding areas of employment such as private services and small firms. This article presents qualitative data on the `start-up' of works councils in France, Germany and Spain, with an emphasis on these sectors. The extension of works councils to difficult sectors depends on establishing clarity about their role, strengthening legislative support, deepening the engagement of external trade unions in their development and ensuring that enterprise actors have realistic expectations."

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