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"This paper presents some of the key insights from the second wave of the ETUI Internet and Platform Work Survey (ETUI IPWS) conducted in 14 member states of the European Union (EU) in Spring 2021. The use of standard probability sampling allows us to estimate the proportion of internet and platform workers, and to identify their characteristics, in a way that is generalisable to the working age population. We found the prevalence of internet and platform work to be relatively similar in the analysed countries, suggesting a uniform evolution of this type of work across the EU. In particular, 17 per cent of the working age population did some internet work in the past year, 4.3 per cent did platform work and 1.1 per cent can be classified as ‘main platform workers'; that is, working 20 hours or more per week or earning more than 50 per cent of their income through platforms. Internet and platform workers differ from the offline workforce in several ways. They tend to be somewhat younger but are far from constituting a student workforce. They are better educated than those who have never done internet work and this is particularly the case for higher skill professional work. Internet work seems mainly to complement offline precarious work and serves as an extra source of income for those on less stable contracts."

"Online labour platforms are redefining the world of work, but little is known even now about the drivers of worker engagement in this type of activity. Earlier studies focused on individual preferences and job characteristics such as flexibility or low entry barriers, but the relative role of such pull factors is limited given widespread worker discontent and generally precarious and unstable conditions, in many respects similar to the low-wage and informal sector. This working paper expands current frameworks by considering the role of the local economic and employment context in explaining the prevalence of internet and platform work.

Our analysis uses the ETUI Internet and Platform Work Survey carried out in Spring and Autumn 2021 with representative cross-national data covering 14 European countries. The results show a higher likelihood of engaging in online work in regions with worse offline opportunities – that is, fewer jobs and of lower quality overall. As internet work is often a secondary source of income, this is likely to reflect a greater juggling of offline and online jobs, driven by increasing economic and job insecurity."

"The labour market position of the lower skilled is increasingly under pressure in most high income countries. Their bargaining position is declining under the twin pressures of globalisation and technological change; and they are at risk of losing access to better positions as firms' pay and conditions arrangements increasingly drift apart. These rising between-firm differences partly come about through the increasing separation of lower skilled workers into lower-paying firms with worse conditions, thereby reducing their opportunities further. One mechanism driving this is the process of (domestic) outsourcing where main firms take certain tasks that are seen as non-core out of their payroll, instead purchasing those same tasks from another official employer while being able to retain control. Workers who see their jobs outsourced generally have to work under worse conditions and for lower pay.

This paper uses cross-national European data (LFS and SES) along with contextual data to study how the labour market position of lower qualified workers is changing over time and how outsourcing and between-firm segregation is contributing to this gap. I find that (1) domestic outsourcing is increasing over time and leading to greater differences in where the lower and higher qualified work; (2) outsourced workers are working under worse conditions with generally lower wages; and (3) wage gaps by qualifications are increasingly due to between-firm segregation, helped along by this process. However, the process is not universal: it hits harder in sectors with greater technological innovation and can be alleviated by union density and worker representation."

"This edited volume explores the need for a transformative approach to envisioning a just social and economic model. A cross-disciplinary team of academic experts was formed to develop this approach, with the aim of proposing concrete policy ideas that are both transformative and original. While these ideas should not be contingent on a revolutionary reconfiguration of the current relationship between capital and labour, they may lead to a radical rebalancing of power structures within societies. Crises are becoming an almost permanent feature of our societies, occurring ever more closely together and increasing uncertainty. The recent crises had and are having profound effects on key institutional arrangements underpinning our societies, such as labour markets and welfare states. This has forced societies to reassess the role of the state in regulating markets, as well as the level of control to which private individuals can be subjected, either by the state or by corporate actors. The post-pandemic period offers a unique opportunity to transform the global economic system, making it more resilient to future shocks, while ensuring environmental sustainability, intergenerational fairness and a dignified existence. It is a time to cast a new social-ecological contract for the future, ensuring a just share of progress for all."

"While labour flows within the EU are substantial and growing, relatively little is known about what drives them or what conditions mobile workers face. This working paper describes the flows of working-age movers between EU Member States, addressing the question of who decides to move and whether these moves follow similar push and pull factors to migration more generally. Besides investigating why EU citizens move between countries, we also describe their initial labour market outcomes at the destination, which is important in considering the benefit of such moves. Our analyses indicate substantial variation in labour market outcomes. As with other migration, mobility within Europe is usually associated with relatively worse labour market opportunities in the labour market compared to the majority. There is strong variation between movers depending on region within the EU, however. This paper also compares the situation of recent movers to those who stay in their countries of origin, finding large differences between countries in the selection of movers."

"Despite some progress, women are still disadvantaged on the labour market. While most policies – pay transparency, awareness raising or anti-discrimination legislation – address the pay gaps between men and women in the same job, less attention is generally given to men and women working in different jobs. Crucially, such segregation is large and can actually widen the gaps as the sheer presence of women in a job seems to lead to a devaluation of those jobs and a reduction in how they are viewed and rewarded. The problem also goes beyond the wage as women also face disadvantage in terms of conditions of work. This paper addresses two issues concerning the horizontal segregation of men and women into different jobs. First, it maps the extent of the separation in jobs and workplaces between men and women and its relationship with gender pay gaps. Second, it shows how this segregation dynamically affects pay and non-monetary working conditions in these more feminised jobs. By taking a longitudinal view, it also becomes clear that several aspects of a job – such as the contract conditions, supervisory responsibilities and pay –become worse over time as more women work in such jobs. The paper points to a need to consider gender equality more widely, not only by focusing on pay differences between men and women in the same job but also on what processes lead to ‘feminine jobs' being valued lower. Devaluation seems to be worse in contexts where women are more disadvantaged – as the gender pay gap is higher – and where employers have more discretion in setting pay and working conditions."

"This study contributes to the understanding of unionization in the platform economy, both in terms of membership rates among different groups of platform workers and the potential for unionization among those who are not yet members. The findings are based on a unique cross-national and comparative survey, dedicated to the analysis of various forms of digitally-mediated work and trade union-related behaviour, which allows for an explicit link between the platform economy and the conventional economy.
Embedded in the particular model of work organization of digital labour platforms, platform workers face several hurdles discouraging them from becoming trade union members. These relate to algorithmic management, regulatory arbitrage regarding the employment arrangements and the promotion of an entrepreneurial orientation among platform workers. Nevertheless, based on data from a representative survey in 14 European countries, union density in the platform economy stands at 13.4 per cent. This should be interpreted as a kind of “platform unionism” that exists by coincidence, however, as union membership is most likely rooted in the labour market status of platform workers in the conventional economy. Compared to the general population, platform workers have stronger pro-union attitudes and are more receptive to union membership. Probably partly reflecting difficulties in the ability to unionize, there is still a gap, though, between attitudes and willingness to unionize: whereas about two-thirds of platform workers hold positive attitudes towards unions, only over a quarter state that they would like to join a union. Apart from those positive pro-union attitudes, the propensity to unionize also seems to be determined by engagement in offline networks that promote a social norm of union membership and online participation in digital work-related communities. While these findings could inform union recruitment and organizing strategies, it is needless to say that the heterogeneity of the platform workforce, strongly influenced by the different ways in which workers participate in the platform economy, requires at the same time tailor-made strategies."