"Applying multi-level modelling to the four rounds of the European Social Survey currently available (2002, 2004, 2006 and 2008), our paper provides evidence of cross-country divergence in the empirical association between extra-representational types of political participation and trade union membership. Cross-national differences in union members' political participation of this kind, we argue, can be explained by the existence of models of unionism that differ with respect to the institutionalization of trade union activity and the opportunities for left-wing parties to gain access to executive power."

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