"This article analyzes the determinants of gender differences in the proportion of managers among white-collar regular workers by using linked data on employers and employees in Japanese firms. First, the article shows that the reasons for “having few or no female managers” given in response to employer surveys conducted by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, such as a “high rate of job quitting among women,” cannot be considered genuinely major causes, even though they are among the minor ones. This is in view of the fact that the proportion of managers among female college graduates is far lower than that among male high school graduates, for any given number of years of employment for the current employer. The fundamental problem lies in “pre-modern” human-resource management whereby gender, as an ascribed status, is given greater weight than educational achievement in determining who will become managers. The article also shows that only about 20% of the gender difference in the proportion of managers is explained by the difference in human capital characteristics between men and women; that in order to becomemanagers, long working hours seem to be required more for women than for men; that the proportion of managers increases for men and decreases for women, depending on the age of their last child, in a way that suggests a reinforcement of traditional gender roles by employers; and that firms with centers dedicated to promoting work-life balance among employees have smaller gender gaps in the proportion of managers."

Support: Digital