"Taking as its point of departure the challenges faced by the European social model and the role of trade unions therein, this article identifies aspects of the defensive orientation adopted by trade unionists in Europe and points to an emerging contradiction between the support of trade unionists for European integration and the increasingly neoliberal character of policies intended to 'modernise' the European economy. Examination of trade union policy innovations intended to reverse recent declines in membership and influence reveals the breadth of such policies, but also demonstrates that to date they have proved insufficient to reverse decline."

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