"Regulations concerning the work environment, tools, and the performance of work are at their best based on scientific evidence. Existing European directives, European and North American standards, and recent guidelines with the potential to prevent musculoskeletal disorders, are either qualitative or semiquantitative. The exception is the NIOSH lifting guide, which is highly quantitative. Of the European directives and standards, few have been developed with the primary goal of preventing musculoskeletal disorders, whereas one North American standard and another suggestion for a standard have this specific aim. In a review of epidemiological studies on low-back, neck, shoulder, and upper extremity disorders, several physical load factors were identified as risk factors for the disorders. Many of these factors have been repeatedly identified, and for different types of outcomes of an anatomical area (e.g. pain, disc herniation, disc degeneration of the low-back or neck). However, quantitative exposure-response relationships between physical load factors and disorders based on field studies are largely unknown. ..."

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